Introduction Minimal Change Disease (MCD) is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children and is characterized by podocyte foot process effacement on electron microscopy without significant findings on light microscopy. It is often steroid-responsive and has a good prognosis. Etiology Idiopathic (most common) Secondary causes: Medications (NSAIDs, lithium) Malignancies (Hodgkin’s lymphoma) Infections (EBV, […]
Introduction Pyelonephritis is a bacterial infection of the kidney parenchyma and renal pelvis, often originating from an ascending urinary tract infection (UTI). It is classified into: Acute pyelonephritis: Severe, symptomatic infection. Chronic pyelonephritis: Associated with long-term complications such as renal scarring. Etiology Primary Pathogens: Gram-negative bacteria are the most common culprits, including: Escherichia coli (E. […]
Introduction: H2 receptor blockers are a class of medications that reduce stomach acid production by blocking histamine type 2 (H2) receptors on the gastric parietal cells. They are commonly used to treat acid-related gastrointestinal conditions such as ulcers, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and dyspepsia. Name of the Drug Class: H2 Receptor Antagonists (H2RAs) Drugs in […]
Introduction Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic condition characterized by the retrograde flow of stomach contents into the esophagus, causing symptoms like heartburn and regurgitation. Persistent acid exposure can lead to complications, including esophagitis, Barrett’s esophagus, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Most common digestive disease. Types: Erosive esophagitis: Visible breaks in the distal esophageal mucosa on […]
Introduction Adenomyomatosis of the gallbladder is a benign, non-inflammatory condition characterized by hyperplastic changes in the gallbladder wall, including thickening and the formation of intramural diverticula (Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses). It is often asymptomatic and discovered incidentally on imaging. Etiology The exact cause of adenomyomatosis is unknown, but it is associated with chronic gallbladder inflammation and gallstones […]
Introduction Toxic megacolon is a life-threatening complication of colonic inflammation characterized by acute colonic dilation (≥6 cm) accompanied by systemic toxicity. It is most commonly associated with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis or infectious colitis caused by Clostridioides difficile or other pathogens. Etiology Inflammatory causes: Ulcerative colitis (most common). Crohn’s disease. Infectious […]
Introduction Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) characterized by patchy, transmural inflammation that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract from the mouth to the anus. It commonly involves the terminal ileum and colon. Unlike ulcerative colitis, it is characterized by skip lesions and a relapsing-remitting course. Etiology Genetic […]
Introduction Definition: Congenital enteropeptidase deficiency (also known as congenital enterokinase deficiency) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder. Cause: Impaired protein digestion and absorption due to the absence or dysfunction of enteropeptidase, an enzyme produced by the duodenal mucosa. Etiology Genetic Cause: Mutations in the TMPRSS15 gene, which encodes enteropeptidase. Inheritance Pattern: Autosomal recessive. Epidemiology Prevalence: […]
Introduction Fidaxomicin is a narrow-spectrum, nonabsorbed macrolide antibiotic primarily used to treat infections caused by Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile). Its unique mechanism of action and minimal systemic absorption make it highly effective and well-tolerated for this indication. Name of the Drug Class Class: Macrolide-like antibiotics (Ribosome-targeting antibacterial agents). Drugs in the Class Fidaxomicin Erythromycin (traditional […]
Introduction Ocular toxoplasmosis is the most common cause of infectious chorioretinitis worldwide. It is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, a parasitic protozoan, and can occur due to congenital infection or reactivation of a latent infection. It is a major cause of vision loss if left untreated. Etiology Caused by Toxoplasma gondii infection. Congenital transmission: Occurs when […]
