Introduction: The two main types of urinary incontinence are stress incontinence and urge incontinence. Stress incontinence is the involuntary leakage of urine that occurs during activities that increase intra-abdominal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing, laughing, or physical exertion. It is caused by weakened pelvic floor muscles and/or insufficient urethral sphincter function, leading to poor urethral […]

Introduction: Renal artery stenosis is the narrowing of one or both renal arteries or their branches, which may ultimately lead to kidney failure and hypertension.  Etiology: The most common cause of renal artery stenosis is atherosclerosis followed by fibromuscular dysplasia.   Atherosclerotic: mostly men; Older patients; 80 – 90% of patients  Fibromuscular: mostly women; Young Caucasian […]

Introduction Minimal Change Disease (MCD) is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children and is characterized by podocyte foot process effacement on electron microscopy without significant findings on light microscopy. It is often steroid-responsive and has a good prognosis. Etiology Idiopathic (most common) Secondary causes: Medications (NSAIDs, lithium) Malignancies (Hodgkin’s lymphoma) Infections (EBV, […]

Introduction Pyelonephritis is a bacterial infection of the kidney parenchyma and renal pelvis, often originating from an ascending urinary tract infection (UTI). It is classified into: Acute pyelonephritis: Severe, symptomatic infection. Chronic pyelonephritis: Associated with long-term complications such as renal scarring. Etiology Primary Pathogens: Gram-negative bacteria are the most common culprits, including: Escherichia coli (E. […]